June 24, 2024

Edward Yuan, Matteo Halewood, Ella Altena Karina Herrera Cardona, Yihang Xu

Introduction

The site for our research project on the anthropology of tourism was the Fort York National Historic Site located beside the Gardiner Expressway. Amidst towering glass condos and a busy expressway, a 43-acre site with the largest collection of original War of 1812 buildings in Canada is nestled. A member of the larger collective of Toronto History Museums, Fort York is largely known as a field trip site for 7th-grade students reaching this part of Canadian history in their curriculums or as a free and large greenspace for walking around or taking your dog out. The site also serves as a host space for various events such as music festivals, movie screenings, and, most recently, the Na-Me-Res Pow Wow and Indigenous Arts Festival.

Fort York is free to enter and consists of six historic buildings to explore. The space includes a fully functional historic kitchen that prepares recipes from the 1800s to serve to guests, large cannons emerging from the bastions, and hourly demonstrations of a live musket firing. Staff can often be seen donning historic attire to lead tours or fire the muskets, and the interiors of the barracks, officer’s quarters and mess are completely restored, allowing guests the opportunity to step into the past and immerse themselves in the daily lives of the British soldiers, their wives and families, and Indigenous warriors. In addition, there is a visitor’s center to the west of the main site, providing visitors with a walkthrough experience of the Battle of York complete with sound effects and immersive elements. The visitor’s center also has a vault that stores items which need to be temperature and light-controlled. As well, the center features an exhibit and video emphasizing the importance of the First Nations in the Battle of York and their own efforts keeping their culture alive. This is the primary dedicated space to First Nations at Fort York, although the main site also features additional information for guests choosing to take a self-guided tour of the Fort.

The general direction of the Toronto History Museum transformations

The decolonization of museum spaces has become an urgent and critical subject matter in both academic research and museum curation. The Toronto History Museums (THM) have published a three-year Strategic Plan to guide their transformation from 2020 to 2022. The THM plans to engage in the decolonization of its affiliated museums, including the Fort York National Historic Site, and enhance reconciliation with Indigenous communities by building and strengthening dialogues, partnerships, and consultation with them (City of Toronto 2020, 4).

This strategic plan outlines six goals to direct their institutional transformation efforts to promote “equity, anti-racism and anti-oppression:” first, to “decolonize Toronto History Museums to advance recommendations of Indigenous voices in Canada;” second, to “create community spaces that are inclusive to all;” third, to “share relevant stories from multiple perspectives to support an equitable society;” fourth, to “revitalize the visitor experience to ensure equitable access to services and a sustainable financial future;” fifth, to “build capacity to promote Sustainable Development Goals, which help all communities thrive;” and finally, to “champion the creation of a Museum of Toronto that serves as a hub to the existing Toronto History Museums and celebrates Toronto’s cultural heritage” (City of Toronto 2020, 2-3). We will discuss the first three goals more in-depth as they are more relevant to the specific decolonization transformations we observed in the Fort York National Historic Site.

The first goal advocates a decolonizing approach to reestablish Indigenous nationhood. This encourages Indigenous peoples to exercise their right to self-governance in internal community matters including cultural practices and resource management. In practice, it requires the museums to train their staff with the skills of intercultural competency for resolving conflict and being sensitive to human rights and anti-racism matters. They also change by establishing, maintaining, and deepening the partnership with the Indigenous communities regarding education and public programs, collections management, and exhibition development (City of Toronto 2020, 9).

The second goal advocates that museums create spaces for communities to confront the current inequitable systems and build more equitable ones. It requires museums to establish Advisory Committees with at least 70% of the members self-identifying as Indigenous and equity-seeking community members. It also asks museums to expand their access and share those spaces with partnered communities to co-create and develop programming (City of Toronto 2020, 11-12). The third goal invites the engagement of Toronto’s diverse communities to transform the museums’ program design to enhance “belonging, individual expression, empathy, and community (City of Toronto 2020, 14).” This requires the museum to train their staff, especially the historical interpreters, to demonstrate the histories that have rarely been mentioned in modern books and museums. The program’s design should also reflect diverse perspectives and experiences of the Indigenous and other underrepresented communities. They also need to promote free admission programs to increase community participation (City of Toronto 2020, 15).

The broader trends of museum decolonization globally

Linda Boukhris’s study on the Le Paris Noir (Black Paris) tourist project emphasizes the invisibilized contributions of the historically marginalized Black population to the development of Paris. This entrepreneur tourist project presents counter-hegemonic narratives of Parisian and French identities, challenging the dominant narratives of white culture. Boukhris unpacks how symbolic violence and cultural assimilation invisibilized Black communities. By transforming institutional spaces with counter-hegemonic narratives, she advocates for a critical understanding of colonial history to acknowledge and address the colonial past and its implications for immigration and diversity issues in today’s Paris (Boukhris 2017, 684-702). Boukhris’s research aligns with the third strategic plan of THM which also advocates the need to diversify the histories presented and delivered in the museum spaces, especially from the historically invisibilized and marginalized communities. Re-interpretation matters to construct counter-hegemonic narratives to address the colonial legacy that still affects the underrepresented communities in Canada, and museums have the proven potential to become frontiers in doing so (City of Toronto 2020, 14-15).

Sally Butler advocates for repurposing and revaluing museum collections of artifacts to promote cultural sustainability rather than merely preserving them without proper study or exhibition. She argues that these collections can serve as dynamic tools to be circulated, contested, and re-valued, generating new understandings of the artifacts and the histories they represent (Butler 2018, 54). Instead of relying on traditional preservation methods, Butler emphasizes the importance of reconnecting and reinterpreting these collections by communicating with source communities and contemporary cultures (Butler 2018, 55). She uses the Torres Strait Islander Art Movement as an example of how repurposing and revaluing museum collections can enhance cultural and political solidarity among source communities and contribute to cultural sustainability (Butler 2018, 60). The second goal of THM’s strategic plan is relevant to Butler’s advocacy, where they plan to engage the Indigenous and equity-seeking communities in the program and collections development and also involve more people to participate by expanding the museum access. Practicing these strategies can help repurpose collections which can support the overall decolonization transformation by redeveloping the narratives regarding those collected artifacts (City of Toronto 2020, 11-12).

Wali and Collins examine the development of the decolonization of museum spaces with a focus on the Native North American heritage and an examination of global practices in addressing similar issues. Beginning with analyzing the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act in the U.S., Wali and Collins examine how the repatriation of Native remains and cultural items can support the relationships between museums and Native communities and how the involvement of and collaboration with Indigenous communities can help to transform museums into more decolonial spaces (Wali and Collins 2023, 329-331). This study shows how incorporating Indigenous methodologies and collaborative practices can improve decolonization and promote Indigeneity. It aligns with the first goal of the THM strategic plan, which advocates transforming the program and service delivery development of museums through collaborating with Indigenous communities (City of Toronto 2020, 11-12). This study specifically gives some more workable advice for achieving this goal that can be used as references to examine the current Toronto History Museums and map the possible future directions.

Garneau distinguishes between reconciliation and conciliation where the former assumes a previously harmonious relationship between Indigenous peoples and settlers, while the latter suggests an ongoing effort to build such a relationship by acknowledging and addressing the colonial past and its implications to today (Garneau 2024, 30-31). Garneau examines how Indigenous people have resisted colonial narratives presented under the name of “reconciliation” and shows the need for alternative approaches to conciliation (Garneau 2024, 24-25). As a key alternative, Garneau advocates for Indigenous sovereign display territories — spaces managed and curated by Indigenous people that allow them to preserve and express their culture without colonial interference. These spaces also provide non-Indigenous people the opportunity to respectfully engage with Indigenous cultures, fostering more authentic dialogues and transformations (Garneau 2024, 35-36). Garneau goes further than the THM’s strategic plans for decolonization, which advocate building museum spaces that are fully managed and owned by the Indigenous people rather than a partnership-based collaboration. It can be an inspirational approach to decolonization for the THM and the City of Toronto.

The specific transformation efforts at the Fort York National Historic Site

Under the guidance of the Toronto History Museums’ Strategic Plan, especially the first three goals, the Fort York National Historic Site has made several efforts to transform its spaces into more decolonial spaces. Specific actions include engagement with the Awakenings Program, the Indigenous Arts Festival, and how they present Indigenous history in their guided tours and physical museum exhibits. We will review those actions in communication with previous literature reviewed.

The Awakenings program is a “…series of art projects by artists from the Black, Indigenous and people of colour communities operating under the principles of anti-oppression, anti-colonialism and anti-racism” (National Trust of Canada 2022). A notable Awakenings project held by Fort York is the We Remember (2021), a temporary art project to honour the Indigenous Veterans Day on November 8, 2021, by an Indigenous artist Jay Soule aka Chippewar. The project reflects the colonial history and the persistent settler-colonialism in today’s Canada and honours the fallen Indigenous warriors in the wars, especially the War of 1812 (Toronto History Museums). This project showed an Indigenous perspective on the sacrificed Indigenous warriors in the wars and the persistent historical colonialism in Toronto and Canada, which inspired individual expression of Indigenous artists and empathy to the Indigenous people represented in this project (City of Toronto 2020, 14).

The Indigenous Arts Festival is a community-focused, family-friendly arts festival where visitors can watch traditional and contemporary music and dance performances by the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Peoples of Turtle Island and experience their vendors and cuisine. Based on previous newsletters (MENA Report, 2017), the earliest Indigenous Arts Festival held in Fort York can be tracked to 2017. The festival continues to be hosted at Fort York and occurred from June 16 to 17 2024, named “Na-Me-Res Pow Wow & Indigenous Arts Festival” (City of Toronto 2024). Na-Me-Res is a Toronto-based native men’s residence dedicated to supporting homeless Indigenous men (Na-Me-Res n.d.). The partnership between Fort York and Na-Me-Res reflects how Fort York practices the third goal and shares its spaces and authority with the partnered communities to co-develop and co-host programs to better help Indigenous and equity-seeking communities thrive (City of Toronto 2020, 12). In addition, As Garneau notes, art can be a medium for Indigenous resistance to colonial narratives and a healing method for Indigenous communities (Garneau 2024, 37-39). Both the We Remember project and the Na-Me-Res Pow Wow & Indigenous Arts Festival can serve the complex function of the art in Toronto’s local Indigenous communities, and how the Art Festival has been held for years seems to prove that the art can be a powerful medium to build solidarity in Toronto, a city with diverse communities.

There is an additional representation of Indigenous people integrated into the guided tours and the physical museum exhibits. It was common for tour guides to begin each tour with a land acknowledgement, but our participant observation revealed there is some inconsistency regarding how and when these land acknowledgements are delivered. Further information about the Indigenous participation and presence in and around the Fort includes how British soldiers, Indigenous warriors and the Canadian militia stood together in Fort York during the War of 1812. For example, during Steve Bennett’s guided tour, he described the Indigenous engagement in the War of 1812, especially the Battle of the York, in detail. His commentary included content about how the First Nations cooperate with the British Crown in the War of 1812, how those Mississaugas, Chippewas, and other Anishinaabek fought with the British army at the battle of York, and how the Indigenous people chose to fight with the British army instead of the American army invading from the South because of the signed Treaty 13 with the British Crown in 1805, which the Americans likely would not have acknowledged if they successfully occupied York.

The physical exhibition also aims to contribute to institutional decolonization by exhibiting relevant objects and the information panel, including the weapons used by the Indigenous warriors and memorials to honour the contribution of the Indigenous communities during the wars and commemorate the sacrifice of the warriors. These efforts reflect their achievement of the third goal of the THM’s Strategic Plan, where the staff discusses and the exhibition demonstrates the histories and historical details that have rarely been mentioned in modern history books and museums and discusses the same history from diverse perspectives, especially the perspective of the Indigenous communities at that time. In addition, all of Fort York’s programs are free from admission fees, which maximizes access from underserved areas, including Neighbourhood Improvement Areas and underrepresented communities, also aligning with the third goal of the THM’s Strategic Plan (City of Toronto 2020, 15). 

Summary of fieldwork findings

The average tour would consist of the following: To begin, a historic interpreter would gather guests outside the canteen which also serves as the main entrance to the historic site and is a gift shop. Typically, the guide’s speech begins with an introduction to the site, including a land acknowledgement. Then, guests enter a fully restored soldier’s barrack, where they sit around a table laden with period-accurate dishware and learn about the daily lives of the men and their families who lived in the barracks. After a look at how the average soldier lived, tours move to the officer’s mess and living quarters, a significantly more comfortable and spacious living area. From there, the visitors are ushered into the historic kitchen, where the fire is burning in the hearth, and another historical interpreter takes over. The new interpreter explains the role of the professional cook who made food for all the officers. This part of the tour frequently provides guests with a sample of historic recipes such as Derby cakes. After the kitchen, everyone files out to the green to watch a musket demonstration, an event that draws crowds from beyond the main tour. After the firing, the crowds disperse to either continue exploring the site on their own or to head out through the gift shop.

Tourists cited three main demonstrations/elements as being particularly engaging: the historic kitchen, the musket demonstration, and the information surrounding Indigenous communities and their connection to the site and War of 1812. The historic kitchen, located in the back of the officer’s living quarters, is fully restored and functional, with a historic interpreter tending to the fireplace and actively engaging with primary documents such as The Cook Not Mad. Guests appreciated the authenticity of the kitchen, and many expressed their pleasant surprise at being able to sample period-accurate recipes that would have been available to officers.

EDWARD: “Okay. And so, among those sections, which one did you find the most interesting?”

JEAN: “Honestly, I think it was the kitchen part, seeing really how they could manage to fulfil culinary orders and really have like this entire logistics of feeding officers and really like with one kitchen like this, that was really interesting. We could see how the food used to be made in that old kitchen in the past.”

James, an American police officer visiting Toronto from New York City, also indicated that his favourite part of the tour was the kitchen, stating in response to a question about standout facilities:

JAMES: “Well the kitchen! That’s definitely the most interesting, especially the way they make food. I hope they can make more recipes. One more like, old recipe that they can show us.”

Based on our research, the kitchen stood out to guests due to its interactive elements, such as sampling period-accurate food and being able to see the fire, large bake oven, and read recreations of real menus that the cook would have prepared.

The kitchen also provided an additional frame of reference for visitors, who had seen the rations (consisting of basic staples such as flour, pork, and watered down beer) provided to average soldiers at the time in the restored barrack and could compare it to the expensive and elevated meals that the officers were eating. Furthermore, the large cone of sugar in the kitchen gives guests another historical perspective: that of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which was the reason why sugar was accessible to British-Canadian officers. The discussion of slavery and its connections to the Fort are otherwise largely unexplored in the tour, and as a colonial institution, we believe this topic should be more prominent throughout the museum. Moreover, Fort York was one small part of the extensive British Empire which, at the time the fort was in use, was a key player in the creation and continuation of the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade. Even if the fort itself was small, the battles and victories won at Fort York helped maintain the British Empire’s power, thus acknowledging the forts’ role in maintaining this colonial power and the violence it perpetrated is important in achieving the THM’s goal of sharing relevant stories from multiple perspectives to support an equitable society.

The second element of the site that guests frequently discussed was the musket firing demonstration. This demonstration was the final part of the main tour allowing guests to watch as a historical interpreter in costume explain the musket’s historical importance, its usage in the War of 1812, and how the muskets work. Guests from beyond the main tour gathered on the green laws between the magazine and the blockhouses. This was the most attended activity on offer by far, usually ranging from 20-25 people. This aspect of the tour is very engaging due to the work of the guide, who asks questions and makes jokes, as well as the showcase of live firing which guests would often film on their phones and excitedly discuss amongst themselves. Interviewees often expressed a feeling of shock or surprise from the gun firing, with many expressing they were not expecting to see the gun actually fire. When we asked a group of students from Toronto Metropolitan University about the moment that stood out to them most from their tour, Jacob, a third-year politics student responded:

JACOB: “It was interesting to see the whole process of how the musket, you know, worked and how it was shot. It’s interesting to envision in battle a bunch of people lined up just going through the motions of that in 20 seconds, or doing whatever, while you’re being shot at, just visualizing that was quite, you know, shocking. That way to fight. It was interesting to see.”

Not everyone we spoke to was as impressed with the demonstration, and it was often the guests who told us they had visited similar historic sites in the past. James, the police officer from NYC, told us he had visited similar sites in Pennsylvania, and that the musket demonstration was:

JAMES: “Not, to be honest, that unique.”

James was one of the many guests who did not get to see the musket actually fire due to constant misfires. When this happened, the guide leading the demonstration turned it into an educational moment to discuss why the musket was so unreliable as a weapon which could happen for a wide variety of reasons, such as the flint wearing down, or high levels of humidity in the air. This kept guests from feeling too disappointed, and oftentimes they would offer to let the guests hold the nearly 10-pound musket as an alternative activity. Overall, the musket demonstration was widely popular and provided most guests with a unique experience that they were not expecting. While the musket demonstration was positively received, we should be critical of the demonstration’s role in asserting colonial history. Moreover, an activity pamphlet provided in the Fort York National Historic Site gift shop is meant to act as an engaging guide for child visitors is rife with solely colonial iconography and information. There is a brief description of basic foot drills for kids to learn, a word search that utilizes words only associated with British soldiers and their practices, as well as other activities that are meant to guide children as they walk through the fort by filling in information. Since this information only pertains to the British side, it provides a very one-sided perspective of the history of Fort York. The musket demonstration in conjunction with the Official Kids’ Guide Explore provided by the museum cements the colonial perspective as being the main story being told at the fort. While we do not think the musket demonstration should be removed from programming, we urge the THM’s to include demonstrations or informational pamphlets that highlight non-colonial practices as to provide a more diverse experience for visitors.

Finally, one of the most prominent themes that emerged from our research is that many of our interviewees demonstrated a strong interest in learning more about the Indigenous peoples and their cultures through the representation of the Indigenous involvement in the War of 1812. Across many interviews, respondents expressed strong opinions about the discussions of Indigenous culture and participation in the War of 1812 and the formation of Toronto as a whole. Jean, an interviewee from France who now has permanent residency in Canada, only had basic knowledge surrounding Indigenous peoples and their cultures in Canada. He mentioned that one of the most interesting things he learned from his guided tour was the Indigenous warriors who fought alongside the British and French-Canadian soldiers at Fort York during the War of 1812. In addition to adding more information panels about the Indigenous elements in the War of 1812, Jean recommended incorporating more representations of the Indigenous cultures, such as the outfits and weapons of Indigenous warriors who fought in the battle.

JEAN: “To me, it was the Indigenous soldiers who fought here. I would say that maybe, have, again, that we go with like the panel idea and so on, but maybe have like some representation of like, the typical outfit that the warriors could have worn during the battle, for example. maybe like, even like in one of the buildings, I think it’s number two, I think it’s like where there is all the cannons, muskets. Maybe I have a bit more of the native weaponry as well, just to show a bit of the side there. Because I really liked showing off the weaponry and tactics were cohabitating with the native ones.”

Leonard, a retired interviewee from the United States, had similar observations regarding the representation of Indigenous peoples and their role at Fort York. He noted that while visitors were made aware that Indigenous people were involved to some extent with warfare at the fort the actual exhibits shown during the tour failed to demonstrate their role at the site.

LEONARD: “So there was a fair representation in the visitor center, in that area […] there is representation for the Indigenous perspective […] It was a little unclear how to connect that directly with the fort. […] But it’s a value to present it, but the interconnection of it was a little vague. I mean, certainly, the idea that there were some, Indigenous, fighters who were helping with the defense at the outset. […] That was mentioned, you know, right up front first thing. But then after that, in the rest of the presentation, there was very very little discussion of that as at that point, then once you’re in the fort, it’s a British fort.”

Despite agreeing that more representation for Indigenous peoples at the fort itself could be improved, both Jean and Leonard were aware of the impact of Indigenous peoples at Fort York, learning about this subject during the tour. However, just audibly describing Indigenous peoples and their role is not sufficient, and in particular poses a problem for visitors who are foreign.

Such was in the case of Pablo, Paloma, and Alma, a group of Argentinians. Both Pablo and Paloma spoke little English even Alma who does understand English missed the part of the tour where Noa, their tour guide, explained the role of Indigenous peoples. Potentially, this lack of communication could have been avoided if there was more visual representation available to visitors during the tour to ensure that all visitors are made aware of the contributions Indigenous peoples have made.

Karina: “Did you learn anything about the role of Indigenous people at this fort and fighting in the War of 1812.”

Pablo: “Did they talk about that?”

Karina: “Yes”

Paloma: “No, I didn’t learn anything.”

Alma: “No, I didn’t hear anything about that.”

Thus, the increase in Indigenous representation will provide visitors, especially international visitors better opportunities to engage and learn about the Indigenous cultures in Canada.

Further, the interviewee Jean pointed out the importance of showing different weaponry and tactics highlighting the significance of the interplay between the Indigenous style of fighting and that of the British. Incorporating this approach will surely provide a more comprehensive historical context of the Indigenous involvement and, thus a more accurate depiction of the War of 1812. This strategy mentioned by Wali and Collins also resonates with two of the six goals of the Toronto History Museums’ Strategic Plan: to decolonize Toronto History Museums by advancing recommendations from Indigenous voices in Canada and to create community spaces that are inclusive to all. (Mrva and Brown 2022, 5) However, the increased exhibition of Indigenous artifacts might come with the increased risk of misconceptions about Indigenous cultures, potentially entrapping them in Euro-American misinterpretation (Wali and Collins 2023, 340). Wali and Collins (2023, 338) noted that centering collaboration with Indigenous communities and scholars is a key approach to reducing such risks and decentering the Western-dominant narrative of historical sites.

Interestingly, Fort York is in collaboration with various Indigenous communities led by the Métis and the Mississauga of the New Credit to present the annual Indigenous Arts Festival. The members of our team had the pleasure of attending this year’s festival on the weekend of June 15th and 16th. The festival serves as a platform for the Na-Me-Res Pow Wow to celebrate and showcase the combination of both traditional and contemporary Indigenous culture through music, dance, storytelling, and crafting workshops. This collaboration underscores Fort York’s commitment to engaging with and uplifting Indigenous voices, thereby supporting the broader goals of decolonization and inclusivity within the museum’s transformation (City of Toronto 2024).

Conclusion

Throughout our ethnographic study of Fort York National Historic Site, we sought to understand the complex interplay between historical representation and contemporary visitor experience. Our research, through the use of methods such as participant observation, demonstrates that Fort York is a unique and multifaceted space that boasts elements of education, leisure, and cultural engagement. We found that visitors were appreciative and interested in the immersive historical reenactments and exhibits, yet they also expressed a desire for deeper integration of Indigenous narratives and artifacts to better represent the site’s true diverse historical contexts. The feedback collected through participant observation and interviews indicates a generally positive reception towards the ongoing museological transformation, aligning with the goals of the Toronto Museums’ Strategic Plan. Our data analysis suggests that Fort York’s efforts to decenter the colonial narrative and become more inclusive of Indigenous perspectives were recognized and valued by the public. That being said, there is still a clear call for continued and expanded representation of Indigenous cultures in order to enhance the education impact and retainment and authenticity of the site.

Our research has found valuable insights into visitor perceptions, which can aid Fort York and the City of Toronto in refining their approach to historical interpretation and inclusivity. By addressing some of the emergent practical challenges and opportunities highlighted by visitors in our interviews, Fort York can continue to evolve as a dynamic space that honours the true history of sight by embracing a more comprehensive and inclusive narrative. It is essential to distinguish our ethnographic work from customer service processes. While customer service aims to address the immediate visitor needs and concerns, as well as to improve satisfaction through various forms of interactions and social forums, our ethnographic research focuses on a deeper, systematic exploration of visitor experiences and perceptions within a broader framework of decolonization.

References

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Garneau, D. 2016. “Imaginary Spaces of Conciliation and Reconciliation: Art, Curation, and Healing.” In Arts of Engagement: Taking Aesthetic Action in and Beyond the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, edited by K. Martin et al., 21-41. Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

Mrva, Sonia, and Michael Brown. 2022. “Advancing Reconciliation, Equity and Inclusion: Re-imagining a New Future for Toronto History Museums.” City of Toronto, 1-11.

Na-Me-Res. n.d. “Mission.” Accessed June 24, 2024. https://www.nameres.org/mission/

National Trust for Canada. n.d. “City of Toronto Museums for Awakenings.” National Trust for Canada. Retrieved June 17, 2024. https://nationaltrustcanada.ca/nt-awards/city-of-toronto-museums-for-awakenings.

Toronto History Museums, 2021. “Awakenings: We Remember.” YouTube Video. 30 seconds. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoviqsGf97o

Wali, Alaka, and Robert Keith Collins. 2023. “Decolonizing Museums: Toward a Paradigm Shift.” Annual Review of Anthropology 52 (1): 329-345.